Mystery of History - What was Greek Fire?

November 9, 2018

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In Game of Thrones, during the Battle of Blackwater Bay, the Lannister forces under the direction of Tyrion Lannister unleash a devastating and dangerous weapon: Wildfire. This incendiary weapon, capable of burning even on water and near impossible to put out, engulfs the fleet of Stannis Baratheon in unnatural green flame and almost single-handedly turns the tide of battle in favor of the Lannisters.

Like much of George R.R. Martin’s hit fantasy series, Wildfire is inspired by actual ancient history, in this case, the legendary weapon known as Greek fire, a weapon deployed by the Byzantine Empire over 1,000 years ago. The use of Greek fire was responsible for numerous Byzantine military victories, as Byzantine ships would deploy the weapon at sea and decimate opposing fleets. The weapon was so infamous that the term became synonymous with any kind of incendiary weapon used during ancient times, regardless of who was using it.

But though there are numerous stories about the destructive potential of Greek fire and its importance in securing key military victories, what exactly Greek fire was is still a mystery. There’s a good reason for that too — the creation of the substance was a carefully guarded state secret.

The substance was said to have invented by a man named Kallinikos in the 7th century, a greek architect or engineer who had escaped from Arab captors and brought his weapon to the Byzantines in order to aid their defense against the approaching Arab armies. How much of that is true is still debated, but there is no denying the results the weapon brought, regardless of who invented it. Greek fire destroyed the Arab fleet that would later siege Constantinople, and decades later history would repeat itself once again, as Byzantine ships equipped with Greek fire decimated yet another Arab invasion.

But what was Greek fire made of? Over the years numerous theories have been posited. Some have claimed the weapon to have a Potassium Nitrate, or saltpeter, base, which would have made it an early type of gunpowder. Most modern scholars have deduced that Greek fire was likely comprised of a type of crude oil combined with other substances, such as pine resin, to increase the potency of the flames as well as the length of time it burned. However, the exact combination of substances that made up Greek fire is still unknown.

There’s also the fact that the actual liquid-like substance known as Greek fire was only part of the equation when it came to why it was so effective on the battlefield. Equally secret were the ways in which the weapon was deployed in combat. The Byzantines built special dromon (a type of galley) ships specifically for the deployment of Greek fire, which were equipped with systems to heat and prepare the substance as well as pressurized nozzles to spray the fire onto enemy vessels from a distance, kind of like an ancient flamethrower. These ships were operated by specialized soldiers who were also highly compartmentalized. Soldiers would only know certain aspects of preparing and deploying the weapon, ensuring that even if the they or their ships were captured, the enemy would be unable to discover the weapon’s secrets.

Greek fire wasn’t used solely on the seas, either. Centuries after its invention, portable versions of the nozzles seen on Byzantine ships were developed that could be used by individual soldiers and were used to great effect during sieges to light aflame siege towers, catapults and defenders on walls from afar.

While we will likely never know precisely what Greek fire was made of or the entire truth of its origins, it remains one of the most infamous, and powerful weapons of ancient warfare ever deployed.

Be sure to visit the Museum of World Treasures to learn more about the ancient world, including Ancient Rome, Egypt, Greece and more.